Early medieval period (c. 650 – 1200)

 The early medieval period in India, roughly spanning from around 650 to 1200 CE, marks a significant shift in the region's political, cultural, and religious landscape. It began with the decline of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century and continued through various phases, including the Late Classical Age of Hinduism, which emerged after the fall of Harsha's Empire in the 7th century. This period saw the rise of several powerful dynasties and the gradual decline of Buddhism in India. By the 13th century, the Delhi Sultanate emerged in the north, and the Later Chola dynasty came to an end in the south after the death of Rajendra Chola III in 1279. However, elements of the classical age persisted in some regions until the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 17th century.

During this era, Hinduism experienced significant transformations. While the once-prominent Śrauta sacrifices dwindled, major sects like Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism gained ground, particularly among the royal courts. In contrast, Buddhism, which had flourished earlier, began to fade due to several factors. The rural population, for example, largely embraced Brahmanical Hinduism, a form of religious synthesis that combined different philosophical schools and practices. Furthermore, the decline in financial backing from trading communities and royal patrons weakened Buddhism's presence in the subcontinent.

Philosophically, the 7th century witnessed the rise of new ideas, with thinkers like Kumārila Bhaṭṭa shaping the Mimamsa school and defending the importance of Vedic rituals, helping to bolster the influence of Hinduism.

In terms of political power, the period from the 8th to the 10th centuries was marked by intense rivalry between three dominant dynasties: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Pala Empire eventually gave way to the Sena dynasty, while the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into smaller kingdoms, many of which would later be recognized as early Rajput states, such as the Kingdom of Malwa, Bundelkhand, and Sambhar. The Rashtrakutas, meanwhile, were absorbed by the Western Chalukyas. This was also the time when the Chaulukya dynasty flourished, commissioning iconic architectural marvels like the Dilwara Temples, Modhera Sun Temple, and Rani ki Vav. The capital city of Anhilwara (modern-day Patan, Gujarat) became one of the largest urban centers in India, with a population estimated at around 100,000 around 1000 CE.

In the south, the Chola Empire, under the leadership of Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, rose to prominence. The Cholas expanded their reach across Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in the 11th century, showcasing their military and naval might. Meanwhile, in the northwest, the Kashmirian Karkoṭa dynasty, led by Emperor Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724–760), exerted influence over regions of northern India and Central Asia.

The Hindu Shahi dynasty, which ruled parts of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th to the early 11th century, also played an important role in this period. In Odisha, the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to prominence, advancing Hindu architecture with remarkable structures like the Jagannath Temple and the Konark Sun Temple. The empire was also known for its patronage of art, literature, and culture, leaving behind a rich legacy.

Overall, the early medieval period in India was a time of dynamic change, marked by religious transitions, political upheavals, and cultural advancements that laid the groundwork for the subsequent history of the subcontinent.